Ad hominem
Occurs when someone treats an attack on a person's character, motives, class, or biography as if it were a refutation of that person's argument.
TacticalEmotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Category
Emotional
Arguments that make feeling do the evidential work reasoning should have done.
Appeal to authority
Occurs when someone treats an authority's endorsement as if it settled the issue, even when the authority is unqualified, the field is divided, or the claim still require...
EvidentialEmotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to consequences
Occurs when someone treats the desirability or undesirability of a conclusion as if it were evidence that the conclusion is true or false.
EvidentialEmotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to emotion
Occurs when a conclusion is pushed mainly by triggering fear, pity, outrage, pride, or hope rather than by showing that the conclusion follows from the evidence.
TacticalEmotionalEpistemic
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to fear
Occurs when someone tries to secure agreement mainly by amplifying danger, threat, or panic rather than by showing that the conclusion is supported.
Emotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to flattery
Occurs when someone tries to win agreement by flattering the audience's intelligence, courage, independence, or special insight instead of supplying the missing evidence.
Emotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to motive
Occurs when a claim is dismissed by speculating about the speaker's motives instead of addressing the claim itself.
EmotionalCausal
Intermediate
High school
Appeal to novelty
Occurs when something is treated as better mainly because it is new, cutting-edge, or marketed as the future.
PerspectivalEvidentialEmotional
Intermediate
High school
Appeal to pity
Occurs when sympathy for a person or group is used as if it were evidence that a claim is true or a conclusion follows.
Emotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to ridicule
Occurs when mockery, embarrassment, or derision is used in place of showing why a view is false.
Emotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to spite
Occurs when resentment, bitterness, or hostility toward another group is used to drive support for a conclusion.
Emotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Appeal to tradition
Occurs when a claim or practice is defended mainly because it has a long history, customary status, or familiar place in a community.
PerspectivalEvidentialEmotional
Intermediate
High school
Argumentum ad baculum
Occurs when agreement is extracted by threat, intimidation, or coercive pressure rather than by showing that the claim is true.
TacticalEmotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Confidence as a validator
Occurs when a speaker's certainty, intensity, or felt conviction is treated as if it were evidence that the claim is true.
EpistemicEvidentialEmotional
Intermediate
High school
Red herring
Occurs when someone diverts attention from the unresolved issue by switching to a different issue that is easier, safer, or more emotionally useful.
TacticalEmotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Sentimental fallacy
Occurs when the desirability, comfort, or emotional appeal of an outcome is treated as if that were evidence that the outcome is true, feasible, or justified.
EvidentialEmotional
Foundational
Middle school+
Wishful thinking
Occurs when a belief or decision is driven mainly by what would be pleasing, hopeful, or comforting if true rather than by what the evidence supports.
EmotionalEpistemicEvidential
Foundational
Middle school+